urbanisation

INTRODUCTION Towns and cities act as a major centers of economic activity, political decision making and cultural creativity . But they are the seats of many of the most severe social and environmental problems generated by demographic and economic growth. The 20th century saw an unprecedented increase in the global scale of urbanization. URBANIZATION – DEFINITION Urbanization refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas It deals to physical growth of urban areas. Understanding of the city is fragmented along disciplinary lines. Thus, demographers see urbanization as a product of variable rates of births, deaths and migration that produce a demographic cycle, each stage of which is associated with different occupational structures. Economist, however, regard urbanization as a series of growth phases that give rise to an increase in specialization of activity. Here economies and diseconomies of scale , labor and service availability or external cost of pollution and congestion, are key factors affecting urban development. Sociologists, meanwhile, view urbanization in cultural context, with the driving force being the change in the experience of individual over time. United nation projected that half of the worlds population live in urban areas at the end of 2008 and it is predicted that by 2050 64.1% of developing and 85.9% of the developed world will be urbanized. The concentration of population in towns and cities create demand for goods and services far in excess of what can be supplied from within urban boundaries. Thus cities have massive consumption of natural and manufactured resources. Urban activities create not only goods and services valued by consumers, but also waste and pollution IMPACT AND ISSUES GENERATED BY URBANISATION Urban growth posses many problems. Some of which are due to the expansion of population and some due to the physical expansion of towns. The impact of urbanization is particularly apparent in the transformation of local environments. But urban systems also have regional and global effects through their consumption of resources and production of wastes. Cities themselves may suffer the negative feedback caused by change in wider environmental systems. The importance and severity of urban environmental change vary substantially; but many problems are common to cities. Environmental concerns focus chiefly upon air quality, noise, water management, housing standards, and the quality of the built environment. Road traffic is the major source of noise pollution in urban areas. Let us examine the impact one by one CLIMATE • Solar radiation at ground surface reduced due to airborne particulates • Air temperature higher due to energy use and heat storage in buildings • Humidity lower as less transpiration and water retaining surface soil • Cloud and fog more frequent and intense; wind speeds lower • Precipitation higher with more extreme events WATER • Permeable surfaces replaced by impermeable surfaces • Evapotranspiration loss reduced and higher water yield potential • Runoff response faster with higher peak discharge and flood risk • Ground water replenishment reduced ;subsidence and saline intrusion risk • Discharge reduced at times of low flow • Land inundation for water supply and hydropower LAND AND RESOURCES • Productive agricultural land lost though development soil erosion • Overbuilding of mineral reserves • Deforestation • High dependence on non renewable energy; depletion of fossil resources • Energy efficiency of distribution networks, buildings and production • Risk from nuclear energy ,waste disposal and facility decommissioning • Conservation of built heritage WASTE AND POLLUTION • Emission of ozone depleting gases • Emission of green house gases • Emission of acid gases • Emission of toxic gases • Emission of toxic metals • Noise • Pollution of water by sewage, industrial effluent • Contamination of land • Solid waste production exceeds capacity of available disposable sites HAZARDS • Road traffic accidents • Flood risk, coastal inundation water supply failure • Land instability- land slip and earth quake • Residential proximity • Non conformity of buildings – low standard of construction • Crime and civil unrest HEALTH AND WELFARE ISSUES • Vector- borne and communicable diseases • Respiratory diseases • Cancer and cardio-vascular diseases • Adequacy of basic services • Access to adequate shelter • Access to basic health , education and welfare services • Access to green area and open spaces • Access to employment and income opportunities • Access to work and service opportunities ECOLOGICAL ISSUES • Reduction of habitat space • Toxicological effects on plants and animals • Extinction of species and diversity • Reduced carbon fixation capacity MAKING CITIES MORE SUSTAINABLE Sustainable development is an organizing principle for human life on a finite planet. It ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social and economic challenges faced by humanity economy in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems. The term sustainable development rose to significance after it was used by the Brundtland commission in its 1987 report on common future and coated a significant definition on sustainable development. “development that meets the needs of the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their on needs”. Study of urban settlements plays a central role in the wider discussions of sustainability. The concentration of population in urban centers often reveals with particular clarity the extent to which economic activity creates both costs and benefits. In an era of economic globalization, it is more obvious than even before that not only one patterns of resources use in urban centers ‘inherently unsustainable’, but the scale of urbanism ‘is now a major threat to global sustainability’. The environmental impacts of towns and cities reflect the demands on material resources made by a population that has attained an unprecedented level of affluence Sustainability strategies address the urban metabolism concept to some degree by managing demand, increasing the efficiency of resource use and distribution and closing material cycles through waste materials as inputs to further productive processes. Actions directed at increasing the circularity of urban metabolism include the use of telematics and land -use zoning to reduce traffic demand. Waste minimization, water leakage reduction, energy recovery through waste incineration, and the use of sewage as an agricultural fertilizer. Other instruments including congestions charging traffic calming to reduce accidents, enforcing air and water quality standards, emission controls, green area planning, building codes and conservation standards- are primarily designed to improve environmental quality, but may also assist in the better management of urban flows of energy and materials. INSTRUMENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. STRATEGIC PLANNING It is the coordination of key urban functions at local and regional levels. It includes land use planning, availability of appropriate infrastructure like transport, public buildings , housings, schools and hospitals and waste disposable facilities etc. 2. TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS The environment and populations may not gain direct benefit from sustainable development therefore there is a role for technical innovation in promoting sustainable development, particularly through clean technologies, and those that promote the efficient use of resources and exploitation of renewable energy. 3. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS They are increasingly seen as powerful tools with which to promote sustainable development. They may take several forms including direct manipulation of price indirect alteration of price. 4. LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS It involves the establishment and policing of minimum standards including implementation of emission standards, energy efficiency standards. 5. EDUCATION AND AWARENESS RAISING It is required so that individuals and organizations are better able to make informed decisions about their own activities that have sustainability implications. SUSTAINABLE CITIES Sustainable development in cities will require emphasis on certain basic aspects of good and healthy living and combining these with economic development goals. • LIMITING CITY SIZE There is a need to limit city size . By careful planning , the city can have real urban amenities like hospitals, museums and theatres. • DETERMINING AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT It should be determined in advance where development would take place. This means that the uses of property and resources would be determined first. By this way, property values can be protected and historical and cultural values can be preserved. • MAKING CITIES VIBRANT, SECURE AND COHESIVE By improving life and security to the city, it can be ensured that the people enjoy and experience life together and develop a sense of commitment towards one another. For maintaining this commitment the city must be designed with proper amenities, it would bring people together, add excitement to their lives and provide them with a sense of belonging. • ACCESSIBLE SHOPPING AND SERVICES Pupil in city should be able to meet their daily needs with greater convenience, less of stress, time and energy. So small scale commercial development is to be encouraged close to residential areas. • INCREASING JOBS IN THE COMMUNITY By creating job opportunities in the community itself, it can save time and energy. So offices , light industry and commercial centers may be located in or near the cities • REDUCING TRAFFIC To prevent environmental Pollution and encourage a healthy life style, people should be encouraged to walk or use energy efficient vehicles . For this purpose special traffic lanes and footpaths to be constructed. If people are encouraged to use a well developed and efficient transport system instead of private vehicles on a regular basis, there will be a less congestion, less pollution in cities and more energy savings. • HOUSING Diverse, flexible housing is a good alternative to conventional detached houses in cities. Single parent families or groups of unrelated adults can share housing and other facilities. It has been said that mixing various type of housing- individual homes, town houses is a good option. • MAKE CITIES SELF SUSTAINABLE By growing food locally , recycling water, using renewable sources of energy and reducing noise and pollution, a cleaner and safer environment can be ensured in cities. A green belt of agriculture land and forest area will help in purifying air, protecting wildlife and rain water absorption. It is also important to make public in decision making and spread of knowledge about local history, culture and environment. Residents must come forward to take responsibility for prevention of crime , fire protection and home care of children and the sick. These will help the city become sufficient in itself. CONSERVATION DEVELOPMENT This Involves cluster housing and open space zoning and reserves some area as natural area, farmland or open space. The importance of the above discussed aspects is in that social justice and welfare and sustainable economic development are needed to solve the problems that cities face today and to help in their sustainable development. Democracy , security and improved economic conditions help in reducing population growth and limiting migration from rural areas to cities. These are necessary for sustainable development of cities. As experts have noted progress needs to strike a right balance with proactive action towards environment protection. In India the tenth (2002-07) five year plan devised few strategies for achieving the objectives of sustainable development such as promoting sustainable consumption levels and awareness programmes like short documentaries and cliplets on primetime , holding van melas, creating environmental consciousness , eco-labeling and packaging , encouraging sustainable production, transportation, packaging and distribution of goods and services, clean technology, waste minimization, renewable, and energy efficiency. REFERENCES • Exploring sustainable development – geographical perspectives - Martin Purvis and Alan Grainger • Geography - Rajiv Ahir